International Studies Essay范文-日本法治、宪政与民主。本文是一篇留学生国际研究方向的essay写作格式，主要内容是讲述亚洲文化和社会经济条件不是放弃法治、宪政和民主的有效借口。台湾、香港和日本等许多亚洲民主社会的成功证明了这一说法的准确性。本篇essay将以日本为例，日本是一个亚洲国家，可以说在社会中成功地实施了法治、宪政和民主。将依次讨论法治、宪政和民主这三个相互联系的概念，并分析日本在这方面的努力。最后，本文将提出另一种立场，即“亚洲文化”和“亚洲价值观”是压制法治、宪政和民主的有效借口，这一论点从根本上是有缺陷的。亚洲不是一个单一的文化。它非常多样化，涵盖了政治领域，并以某种方式借鉴了宗教和传统，从而使亚洲“文化”或“价值观”的特征在任何总体或代表性意义上都无法明确表达。请参阅以下essay范文的具体内容。
Introduction 引言
Asian culture and socio-economic conditions are not valid excuses to abandon the rule of law, constitutionalism and democracy. The veracity of this statement is illustrated by the success of many Asian democratic societies such as Taiwan, Hong Kong and Japan. This essay will focus on the example of Japan, an Asian country that has arguably been successful in implementing the rule of law, constitutionalism and democracy into its society. The three interlinking concepts of the rule of law, constitutionalism and democracy will be discussed in turn, along with an analysis of Japan’s endeavours in each regard. Finally, this essay will suggest an alternative position, that the argument that ‘Asian culture’ and ‘Asian values’ are valid excuses for suppressing the rule of law, constitutionalism and democracy is fundamentally flawed. Asia is not a monolithic culture. It is extraordinarily diverse, ranging across the political spectrum, and drawing on religion and tradition in ways that make a definitive articulation of what characterizes Asia’s ‘culture’ or ‘values’ impossible in any overarching or representative sense.
Rule Of Law 法治
What is it? 这是怎么一回事？
‘Rule of law is an essentially contested concept’.[1] The concept has different meanings to different people, and despite the endeavours of many it has no universal definition. Although there is contention surrounding the proper interpretation of the rule of law, its core meaning and basic elements are clear.[2] At its most basic, the rule of law stands for two propositions: no one is above the law, and equality of all before the law.
“法治是一个基本上有争议的概念”。这个概念对不同的人有不同的含义，尽管许多人都在努力，但它并没有普遍的定义。尽管围绕正确解释法治存在争议，但其核心含义和基本要素是明确的。法治在最基本的意义上代表两个命题：没有人凌驾于法律之上，法律面前人人平等。
According to Randall Peerenboom, conceptions of the rule of law can be divided into two general types, ‘thin’ and ‘thick’. A ‘thin’ conception stresses the formal elements of the rule of law. For example, there must be laws that are accessible, generally applicable and reasonably acceptable. Laws must be clear, consistent, stable and enforced. A ‘thick’ conception incorporates elements of political morality (e.g. free market capitalism), forms of government (e.g. democratic) and human rights (e.g. libertarian).[3]
根据Randall Peerenboom的说法，法治的概念可以分为两种一般类型，“薄”和“厚”。“单薄”的概念强调法治的形式要素。例如，必须有可访问、普遍适用和合理接受的法律。法律必须明确、一致、稳定和执行。“厚重”的概念包含了政治道德（如自由市场资本主义）、政府形式（如民主）和人权（如自由意志主义）的要素。
According to the World Justice Project (WJP) Rule of Law Index 2019, Japan ranks 15th in the world for the strongest adherence to the rule of law.[4] It falls closely behind Australia in 11th and the United Kingdom in 12th. The WJP Rule of Law Index measures the rule of law based on the experiences and perceptions of the public and in-country experts. The Index is the most comprehensive dataset of its kind, and is the world’s leading source for current and original data on the rule of law. The WJP Index measures countries’ performance across eight factors: constraints on government powers, absence of corruption, open government, fundamental rights, order and security, regulatory enforcement, civil justice, and criminal justice.[5]
根据2019年世界正义项目法治指数，日本在最严格遵守法治方面排名世界第15。澳大利亚排在第11位，英国排在第12位。WJP法治指数根据公众和国内专家的经验和看法衡量法治。该指数是同类数据中最全面的数据集，是目前和原始法治数据的世界领先来源。WJP指数衡量各国在八个因素方面的表现：政府权力制约、不腐败、开放政府、基本权利、秩序和安全、监管执法、民事司法和刑事司法。
Japan today is a post-industrial economy with a mature legal system. According to John O’Haley and Veronica Taylor, the rule of law – both in its thick and thin versions – is visible and vibrant in Japan.[6] The rule of law in Japan evolved from the borrowing of legal institutions from China in the medieval period to the 19th century use of the German concept of the Rechtsstaat.[7]Following the second world war, an Anglo-American version of the rule of law was introduced through the 1946 Constitution.[8]
今天的日本是一个拥有成熟法律制度的后工业经济体。根据约翰·奥黑利和维罗妮卡·泰勒的说法，法治——无论是厚版还是薄版——在日本都是可见的、充满活力的。日本的法治从中世纪向中国借用法律制度演变到19世纪使用德国的法律制度。第二次世界大战后，通过1946年宪法引入了英美版本的法治。
The vibrancy of the rule of law in Japan is illustrated by its successful court system, which is charged with the oversight of the executive branch of government and provided for in the 1946 Constitution.[9] Japanese people also enjoy a long list of constitutional guarantees for political, economic and social rights. Such guarantees and their implementation are taken seriously in Japan.[10] Japan is a great example of the fact that Asian societies are not necessarily resistant to the rule of law.
日本成功的法院系统体现了法治的活力，该系统负责监督政府的行政部门，并在1946年宪法中有所规定。日本人民还享有一长串的政治、经济和社会权利的宪法保障。日本认真对待这些保证及其执行。日本是一个很好的例子，说明亚洲社会并不一定抵制法治。
Constitutionalism 宪政
The rule of law and constitutionalism are interlinked. The rule of law is an element of constitutionalism. Constitutionalism includes other elements such as the separation of powers, political checks and balances, civil liberties, a written constitution, review of governmental actions and the peaceful transfer of political power.[11]
法治与宪政是相互关联的。法治是宪政的一个要素。宪政包括其他要素，如权力分立、政治制衡、公民自由、成文宪法、审查政府行为和和平移交政权。
The Japanese 1946 Constitution is one of the world’s oldest and most effectively implemented basic laws.[12] Although the 1946 Constitution was imposed on Japan by United States occupying authorities after World War II, it has become central to the modern Japanese state and its people.[13] The Constitution has been embraced and adapted by the Japanese people and courts. It has enjoyed widespread popular satisfaction, support and respect.It is not perfect, nor is any constitution, but is a strong success story of liberal constitutionalism in an Asian society.[15]
1946年的日本宪法是世界上最古老、实施最有效的基本法律之一。尽管1946年宪法是二战后美国占领当局强加给日本的，但它已成为现代日本国家及其人民的核心。日本人民和法院接受并修改了宪法。它得到了广泛的民众满意、支持和尊重。它不是完美的，也不是任何宪法，但它是亚洲社会自由宪政的一个强有力的成功故事。
Since the Constitution’s introduction in 1946, commitments to international peace, human rights, and popular sovereignty have been central to Japan’s constitutionalism.[16] The individual Japanese enjoys a wide range of rights and freedoms under Chapter 3 Articles 11-40 and Article 97 of the Constitution. ‘All of the people shall be respected as individuals’ and these rights and freedoms are to be ‘the supreme consideration in legislation and in other governmental affairs’.[17] Progressively, social and political rights have enjoyed increased protection and promotion under Japanese law. In some areas, such as democratic stability, health care and education, Japan is now a world leader.[18]
自1946年宪法出台以来，对国际和平、人权和人民主权的承诺一直是日本宪政的核心。根据《宪法》第3章第11-40条和第97条，日本人享有广泛的权利和自由所有人都应作为个人受到尊重，这些权利和自由应成为“立法和其他政府事务的最高考虑”。逐步地，社会和政治权利在日本法律下得到了更多的保护和促进。在一些领域，例如民主稳定、医疗保健和教育，日本现在是世界领先者。
Japan is an illustrative example of the fact that Asian culture and values are not necessarily resistant to constitutionalism. It supports the contention that Asian culture is not a valid excuse to abandon constitutionalism. The triumph of constitutionalism in Japan was determined more by politics and historical events (i.e. war and foreign intervention), than by culture and values.[19] According to Albert Chen’s study of the constitutional development in Japan and four other major Asian nations, there are ‘grounds for cautious optimism regarding the prospects of constitutionalism in Asia and its adaptability to Asian soil’.[20] Constitutionalism, although originally a Western concept, has universal appeal to address the fundamental issues of government, governance and political power in many modern Asian societies.[21]
日本就是一个例证，说明亚洲文化和价值观不一定抵制宪政。它支持这样的论点，即亚洲文化不是放弃宪政的有效借口。日本宪政的胜利更多地取决于政治和历史事件（即战争和外国干预），而不是文化和价值观。根据Albert Chen对日本和其他四个主要亚洲国家宪政发展的研究，“有理由对亚洲宪政的前景及其对亚洲土壤的适应性持谨慎乐观态度”。宪政虽然最初是一个西方概念，但对于解决许多现代亚洲社会中的政府、治理和政治权力等基本问题具有普遍吸引力。
Democracy 民主政体
Democracy is an aspect of the rule of law and is a product of constitutionalism. Democracy is a system of government where the citizens exercise power by voting.
民主是法治的一个方面，是宪政的产物。民主是公民通过投票行使权力的政府制度。
Since the Constitution’s introduction in 1946, Japan has enjoyed an unbroken succession of national and local elections under democratic law. All men and women over eighteen have the right to vote, and generally exercise that right more than in other non-compulsory electoral systems, such as America.[22] Since the 1990’s, an ongoing legal reform process has addressed issues of malapportionment and excesses in political fundraising, which have successfully reduced occasional instances of corruption. New reforms are continually being proposed to enhance Japan’s democratic leadership structure.[23] Japan is an example of an Asian country that has successfully progressed into a democratic society, which supports the contention that Asian culture is not a valid excuse to abandon democracy.
自1946年宪法出台以来，日本在民主法律下连续举行了全国和地方选举。所有年满18岁的男性和女性都有投票权，并且通常比其他非强制性选举制度（如美国）行使更多的投票权。自20世纪90年代以来，持续的法律改革进程解决了政治筹款中的比例失调和过度问题，成功地减少了偶尔发生的腐败事件。不断提出新的改革方案，以加强日本的民主领导结构。日本是一个成功发展成为民主社会的亚洲国家的例子，这支持了亚洲文化不是放弃民主的有效借口的论点。
‘Asian Values’ debate “亚洲价值观”辩论
Further or alternatively, I believe the argument that ‘Asian culture’ or ‘Asian values’ are valid excuses for suppressing the rule of law, constitutionalism and democracy is fundamentally flawed. Such a position was first coined by the former Prime Minister of Singapore, Lee Kuan Yew, and it stands for a system of values, where economic development is paramount over individual civil and political rights.[24] According to theories of ‘Asian values’, such values encompass certain Confucian[25] features: primacy of collective interests of the community over those of the individual; respect for the elderly; an interest in order and stability, family, nation and community; the value of hard work and frugality; self-sacrifice for the family; denial of present gratification for long-term benefits and commitment to education.[26]
此外，我认为，“亚洲文化”或“亚洲价值观”是压制法治、宪政和民主的有效借口，这一论点从根本上是有缺陷的。新加坡前总理李光耀首次提出了这一立场，它代表了一种价值体系，即经济发展高于个人公民和政治权利。根据“亚洲价值观”的理论，这些价值观包含了儒家的某些特征：社区的集体利益高于个人利益；尊重老年人；对秩序和稳定、家庭、国家和社区的利益；勤劳节俭的价值观；为家庭自我牺牲；为了长期利益和对教育的承诺而拒绝目前的满足。
There have been many objections to such an ‘Asian values’ argument. Firstly, Asia is not a monolithic culture, in that it has extraordinary cultural and geographical diversities. Asia is not a single and cohesive cultural unity, it is exactly Asia’s cultural diversity that makes Asian countries so interesting, rich, colourful and enduring.[27] Thus, such an overarching argument that ‘Asian culture’ is a valid excuse for abandoning concepts such as democracy is untenable. Furthermore, it is incorrect to assert that Asia has never endorsed concepts such as democracy and human rights; and it is equally incorrect to assert that Asia does not need the former. As stated by the former president of South Korea, Kim Dae-Jun, any argument advocating respect for cultural differences is extremely offensive when used to justify authoritarian governments in Asian countries.[28] As also stated by Kim Dae-Jun in an article for the Australian, Asia has a rich heritage of democracy-oriented philosophies and traditions, and has made great progress towards democratization. Asia should not waste time in firmly establishing democracy and strengthening rule of law. Asia’s biggest obstacle is not its cultural heritage, but rather the resistance of authoritarian rulers and their supporters. [29]
对于这种“亚洲价值观”的说法，有很多反对意见。首先，亚洲不是一个单一的文化，因为它具有非凡的文化和地理多样性。亚洲不是一个单一的、有凝聚力的文化统一体，正是亚洲的文化多样性使亚洲国家如此有趣、丰富、多彩和持久。因此，这种认为“亚洲文化”是抛弃民主等概念的有效借口的总体论点是站不住脚的。此外，断言亚洲从未认可民主和人权等概念是不正确的；断言亚洲不需要前者同样是不正确的。正如韩国前总统金大中所言，任何主张尊重文化差异的论点，在亚洲国家被用来为专制政府辩护时，都是极其令人反感的。正如金大中在《澳大利亚人报》的一篇文章中所述，亚洲拥有丰富的民主哲学和传统遗产，并在民主化方面取得了巨大进展。亚洲不应在坚定建立民主和加强法治方面浪费时间。亚洲最大的障碍不是其文化遗产，而是专制统治者及其支持者的抵制。
Conclusion 结论
The success of Japanese democratic society, supports the contention that Asian culture and socio-economic conditions are not valid excuses to abandon the rule of law, constitutionalism and democracy. Japan is an illustrative example of the fact that Asian culture and values are not necessarily resistant to the rule of law, constitutionalism and democracy.
Essay总结日本民主社会的成功支持了这样一种观点，即亚洲文化和社会经济条件不是放弃法治、宪政和民主的有效借口。日本就是一个例证，说明亚洲文化和价值观不一定抵制法治、宪政和民主。本站提供各国各专业essay代写或写作指导服务，如有需要可咨询本平台。