Table of contents
1. Introduction 2
1.1 Research countries 2
1.2 Research objective 2
2. Analysis of the Position of Women in the UK Labor Market 3
2.1 Changing demonstrations 4
2.1.1 Rising of employment rate of British women 4
2.1.2 Growing of The proportion of women informal employment in Britain 6
2.2 Reasons for the change 7
2.2.1 Weakening of Patriarchy and increasing of self-consciousness 7
2.2.2 Increasing of Human capital investment increasing 8
2.2.3Growing of government support in women employment 8
3. Evaluation of Existing policies advocating women employment 9
3.1 “training system”—to provide training opportunity for women 9
3.2 “employment equality act”—to protect women rights 9
3.3 “gender discrimination act”—to promote to diminish gender discrimination 10
3.4 1995 job-seeker act 11
4. Contrast of UK and other EU members 11
4.1 similarities 11
4.1.1 Legal protection women employment right 11
4.1.2 Improve women entrepreneurship environment 12
4.1.3 Education and training 12
4.2 common problems 13
4.2.1 The same job with different salary 13
4.2.2 Occupational segregation 13
5. Recommendations 14
Reference 15
1. Introduction
1.1 Research countries
British women employment situation has improved much since industrial revolution. Britain has issued a lot of laws and policies to promote women employment, but there are still some problems and gaps between women and men. The inequality still exits. European countries, especially EU organization has advocated women employment for many years. In this paper, Britain and EU countries are the research objects. Through comparing the similarity and difference of women employment, we can find out the change of women employment now and find out the existed problems, then analyze the reasons and propose some suggestions to deal with them.
1.2 Research objective
Discrimination is a factor of labor market failure and a source of inequity in the distribution of income and wealth and it is usually subject to government intervention e.g. through regulation and legislation.
Many groups of people are easily discriminated in the British labor market, such as the disabled, the ethnic minority groups, women, young or old workers and migrant workers. Therefore gender discrimination in labor market is a key issue in the world and the main problem includes unequal opportunities of obtaining employment between males and females, unequal payment between males and females and other unequal rights for females in workplace. Gender discrimination in labor market is not only affects the rational uses of human resources of women, but also results in the waste of social human resources.
What is the reason lead to gender discrimination in workplace? It can be reduced to three aspects. First one is traditional conception. It always related to human capital theory and women’s preference theory. The second one is occupational segregation. ‘Women’s employment tends to be concentrated in certain occupations’ (Riley& College. 2006). And the last one is the effects of monophony power. For example, ‘females may be relatively geographically immobile, because they are tied to their husbands' place of employment and may be paid less than a competitive wage by a monopolist employer’ (Riley& College. 2006).
However, in recent years, the situation of women’s position in the UK labor market seems get better and better.
In order to study the changes of women’s position in the UK labor market, this report is divided into three sections: virtue of data, theories and examples to analyze. At the mean while, there will be a comparison between UK and Sweden. Sweden, as UK, is a European country and the two both belong to European Union, so they have similar background and similar national conditions. Hence, comparing these two countries can help to analyze and find out in depth. What’s more, relative protection policies will be involved in the report. At the end of the report, it will give some recommendations to avoid inequality in the gender group in UK.
2. Analysis of the Position of Women in the UK Labor Market
In this part, some changes will be found out and shown.
2.1 Changing demonstrations
2.1.1 Rising of employment rate of British women
Since industrial revolution, British women, especially the married women have been almost excluded from labor force. According to the statistics, before 1960s, British women employment rate accounted for less than 29% of the whole employment amount. While the married women employment only accounted for less 9.6% of the whole women employment. Until the middle of 20th century, in Britain, men went out for work, while women stayed at home to do homework (Johansson, 2005).
Particularly since the 60's in the last century, global rise of the feminist movement makes the upsurge in awareness of women's independence, as well as the rise of the tertiary industry agitatedly, UK employment rate for women increased rapidly. According to statistics, on the 1950's ago, the employment of the total number of women in the labor force ratio was 29%; in 1966 rose to 34 percent, in 1991 reached 43 percent. In which the employment of married women accounted for the total female workforce in 1961 was 30%, in 1981 40%, in 1991 reached 53% (Rosemary, 1997). In 1970 the British Parliament passed the "equal pay for equal work", which provided that the same work must receive equal pay. Parliament in the same year adopted the "Sex Discrimination Act", on women's equal employment rights it was more clearly defined. The second half of the 20th century British women's employment grew rapidly. The specific data can be shown in the following table:
Table 1 rising rate of British women employment
year Employment Rate of women in total employment Rate of married women in total women employment
1961 34% 31%
1981 38% 40%
1991 43% 53%
1996 63.6% 56%
2004 66.8% 60%
2006 68% 66%
2008 70% 70%
From the table we can see that since 2006, the employment rate of married women rise because of the global financial crisis. More and more married women go out for work to release family stress.
Compared women employment with men employment, the trends can be seen more clearly. In the report called Equality group inequalities in education, employment and earnings: A research review and analysis of trends over time (Li, Devine& Health, 2008) shows the data on employment status in 2004/5 are found in Table 2 and those for 1996/7 are found in Table 3.
Table 2 Employment situation by gender in 2004/5
Men Women
Employed % Unemployed % Inactive % Employed % Unemployed % Inactive %
77.5 4.0 18.5 66.8 2.7 30.5
Source: The General Household Survey (2004/5) and Wave 1 from each quarter of the Labour Force Survey (2004/5).
Table 3 Employment situation by gender in 1996/7
Men Women
Employed % Unemployed % Inactive % Employed % Unemployed % Inactive %
75.8 7.0 17.3 63.6 4.2 32.2
Source: The General Household Survey (1996) and Wave 1 from each quarter of the Labor Force Survey (1996/7).
The table 2a shows that the most of men were about 77.5 per cent in employment and 18.5 per cent of men being inactive (Li, Devine& Health, 2008). The proportion of women in employment was lower, about 66.8 per cent and women in unemployment were also a little lower, about 2.7 per cent. However, there was a much higher proportion of women were inactive, about 30.5 per cent (Li, Devine& Health, 2008). Compare these two tables, it shows that the employment situation for women is changing year by year.
2.1.2 Growing of The proportion of women informal employment in Britain
Due to the difficulty for women job hunters, in Britain, informal employment has become the important method for women employment. According to Eurostas labor force survey statistics, At nearly ten years women's non-formal employment rate has risen faster, in the United Kingdom, in 2008 non-formal sector’s employment of women accounted for 92.7 percent of the total number of women, over 10 years ago, it increased by 24 percentage points compared with 66.7 percent (Li, Devine and Heath, 2008). Of course, boundaries between informal employment and informal employment all countries have a big difference, but for the same country the longitudinal comparison should be feasible. When the Eurostat does statistics for labor force survey, the non-regular employment is classified as part-time employment, short regular contract work and self-employment. which the part-time employment are in accordance with the application for employment; short regular contract worker and the newly opened company's employees, temporary workers, emergency workers, the newly formed subsidiaries of large companies’ workers, such employment 1 / 3 are in agriculture, construction, footwear and leather products industry, etc.(Brief, 2007); self-employment is defined as those who have their own business accounts, including the bosses who have one or more employees, but also include bosses without workers. British women's informal employment trends are as follows:
Table 4 Development trend of British women informal employment during 1998 to 2008
Rate of part-time job(%) Rate of short-term contract (%) Rate of Self-employment Rate of Informal employment (%)
1998 2008 +/- 1998 2008 +/- 1998 2008 +/- 1998 2008 +/-
Britain 44.8 31.3 +4 9.7 12.5 +2.8 9.6 9.4 -0.2 46.6 53.2 +6.6
Source: Eurostat, 2008
In short, British women informal employment rate grows during 1998 to 2008 these ten years.
2.2 Reasons for the change
2.2.1 Weakening of Patriarchy and increasing of self-consciousness
Patriarchy concept is the traditional value of British culture. Alison (1994) Considers that the root causes of oppressed women is the patriarchy system. The so-called patriarchy refers the men to control the women. This system is characterized by power, domination and hierarchy. Alison (1994) also thinks that the patriarchy system is initially rooted in gender division of labor; it is the biological reason which eventually leads to the women’s oppressed fate.
With the prospects of Feminist movements, women begin to try to escape from the traditional patriarchy system which governs their minds, and then they begin to realize their own powers and rights and establish self-esteem, self-confidence and self-improvement consciousness (Westmarland, 2001). Women begin to recognize that as long as they have the equal employment rights then they can compete with the men and escape their status to be the subsidiary of men; in turn their fight for employment rights is also the indication of their fight against such system to strive for equal economic rights.
2.2.2 Increasing of Human capital investment increasing
However, the situation was not optimistic in the past time. In the article ‘GLOBAL EMPLOYMENT TRENDS for WOMEN’ (Brief, 2008), the author said ‘while not all women of working age may wish to work, the existence of significant unemployment indicates that there are many women who want a job but are unable to find one’ (Brief, 2008). And he thought the relationship between employment status and education is consanguineous. Author said ‘education is a basic right. It is essential for development, as education can help people to find solutions to their problems and can provide new opportunities. It opens chances to participate in labor markets or to look for more decent employment opportunities. (Brief, 2008) In article, it mentioned that ‘most 800 million adults have not had the opportunity to learn how to read and write and there are two third of whom are women. In addition, there were 60 percent of girls who left school (Brief, 2008). Moreover, there are often cultural restrictions that prevent girls from finishing even basic education, limiting their chances to determine their own future severely. That’s the reason why girls have a little opportunity to work. In People’s mind, it is human capital approach.
2.2.3Growing of government support in women employment
The United Kingdom introduces a variety of employment policies and laws which is conducive to women employment. For example the Government in its revitalizing economy plans regards to solve the employment problem policy as an important element, develops and implements a number of specific, flexible employment policies to encourage the expansion of demand for labor, improve labor supply, wages and profits link, the social welfare system reform which has made new efforts to help create new job opportunities and motivate unemployed’ working desire and support entrepreneurs. Then in the following chapter, the author will give more deep discussion and details about the laws and policies which advocate women employment.
3. Evaluation of Existing policies advocating women employment
3.1 “training system”—to provide training opportunity for women
Since World War Ⅱ, Britain has issued a lot of laws and policies to encourage employment, these policies objectively promote British women employment too. British government in 1964 and 1973 respectively promulgated “the industrial training Act” and “employment and training Act” and accordingly set up ITB (Industrial Training Bureau) and MSC (Manpower service Committee). The government emphasized through training to improve HR quality to adapt to the change demand for industrial adjustment (Val, 2006). In 1990s, British employment training system develops to Pluralism, which focuses on unemployed core capability and individual demands. Due to these perfect training systems, British women get better opportunities to be trained and improve their ability to get a job.
3.2 “employment equality act”—to protect women rights
Britain now has two equal opportunity acts relating to sexual orientation: "Employment Equality Regulations" and "Equality Bill". "Employment Equality Regulations" specifically aims to eliminate sexual discrimination in the areas of employment and occupation. "Equality legislation" at the same time prohibits the goods, equipments, premises and service delivery, education, the exercise of public functions areas’ such discrimination. Employment Equality Regulations 2003) prohibits discrimination and harassment based on sexual orientation in employment area, including direct and indirect discrimination.
3.3 “gender discrimination act”—to promote to diminish gender discrimination
This Act provides major employment discrimination against women:
First, the recruitment of gender discrimination. If the employer indicates in its leaflets job only for men, is a violation of the gender Discrimination Act, it belongs to the direct discrimination; if adds some additional requirements for women which are not conducive to women is indirect discrimination, such as age restrictions or requiring the applicants have no need to feed children (Johansson, 2005). The victims Due to gender discrimination have not been employed can take proceedings in the industry court.
Second, gender discrimination in the employment process. If an employer dismisses a female employee simply because of the gender, or according to the conditions which do not belong to "not conducive to women's unreasonable demands or conditions" then it also violates the provisions of the Sex Discrimination Act (Rosemary, 1997). To restrict employee access to benefits is discriminatory, the employer must be particularly careful not to put employees in the promotion, transfer or training, and employees of the questions linked to gender.
3.4 1995 job-seeker act
The United Kingdom in the "job-seekers Act 1995" provides job-seekers allowance system, the allowance has two forms, mainly to the temporary unemployed who are below retirement but over the 18 years old and are actively looking for work (Brief, 2007). In which the fee-based job seekers’ allowance in the eligibility requirements for recipients is very similar with the unemployment allowance conditions, which requires the unemployed to pay for enough premium. The income-related job seekers’ allowance request is very similar with income support recipients’ condition, such as requirement the same survey, the income, unable to sustain, actively looking for work and so on. In one application job seekers can apply for these two different forms of subsidy. The allowance is a new type of the social security system in the United Kingdom, which in part alleviates the economic stress for women employment.
4. Contrast of UK and other EU members
4.1 similarities
UK as the member of EU has very similar situations and policies to match with EU policies, so does women employment. This can be indicated in the following aspects:
4.1.1 Legal protection women employment right
Women have equal opportunity with men so legislation in the European governments plays an important role (Collinson, 2006). Western European countries since the founding of Germanic people under the influence of the "Roman law" or "customary law", and ultimately have a sound legal system, which for equality for women offers the best conditions. The Society gives opportunities for women, such as restrictions on working hours, changes in work organization all have an equal effect on men and women's role which can not be ignored. This continuous legal basis for women flexible working time, children catering, home work and social protection all provide legal provisions. This for women equal employment lays a better basis.
4.1.2 Improve women entrepreneurship environment
What’s more, EU countries in order to advocate EU polices on women employment all strengthen to support women entrepreneurs. EU women play enormous role in SMEs management, according to the statistics, in 16 million EU enterprises, female management accounts for 20% to 30%, at the same time 25%-35% new enterprises are created by women (Rubery, 1998). In order to soon improve environment for women, since 1996 EU has took special measures such as help to set up websites or to give financial support.
4.1.3 Education and training
Education and training has become an urgent need for the EU women. In fact, since establishment of EU it has focused on personnel training in European labor market, such as Socrates training and the European youth project have the contributions to talent training market in Europe. At the same time, the European Union also for women's development provides opportunities, such as organizing summer training, higher education, in particular, the so called "Leonado" training programs are designed to provide training for interrupt career for women, and this is a summer training-related project (Cherrie, 1998). "It also encourages the project promoters to take equal opportunities for all training sessions as a special part." (Jill, 1998)
4.2 common problems
4.2.1 The same job with different salary
The same job with the same salary is the dream for all people, especially for women. Though this principle has been written in the Treaty of Rome, Actually, in this issue, the legislation is one thing, the reality is another thing. From the following statistics, we can clearly see the income gap between EU men and women (Westmarland, 2001).
Rate of women to men in Manual work (hour) Rate of women to men in Mental work (month)
Belgium 75.9 64.4
Denmark - 84.5
France 80.8 66.6
Germany 73.2 66.8
Greece 76.3 69.8
Ireland 68.1 -
Italy 82.7 69.2
Luxembourge 65.1 54.9
The Netherlands 75.3 65.5
Portugal 71.6 70.7
Spain 71.9 62.3
U.K 68.2 54.2
4.2.2 Occupational segregation
Occupational segregation appears in the senior positions. According to the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) message, according to a new report of the United Kingdom Government agency which deals with sex discrimination "the Equal Opportunity Commission", the rate of women in senior positions in the United Kingdom is still very low. The report says that in the highest level positions there are less than one-tenth women. "Equal Opportunity Commission" says the report firstly collects senior women positions position information in the political, public institutions and the business community areas. This called "gender and power: who controls the United Kingdom" report concludes that after the anti-sex discrimination law has passed, after nearly three decades, women in the United Kingdom commercial, police and judicial system’s senior positions are still occupied less than 10% (Brief, 2007). Report states that long working hours and lack of flexible working arrangements often make it difficult to develop women's career to the top. The report states that unless the women’s obstacles encountered in the early career are cleared that women in senior positions has the low proportion of problem will not be resolved. The same phenomenon appears in other EU countries.
5. Recommendations
Thus here comes the conclusion: even though we saw such progress, women can’t always enjoy the same rights as men at work. Most women stay in lower position to get lower salary with poor skills. They have less chance to be trained or be promoted, even those more professional women. And the profession is also limited to female. Since the reasons of the discrimination are various, the elimination of inequality in employment should be regarded as a systematic project. It needs the cooperation of different parties in our society.
First of all, the gender discriminated traditional thoughts must be eliminated and a new concept of gender different should be formed. For example, the government has to educate the public the sense of equality in employment and protect the basic right of female job-seekers on TV or give wide publicity in public frequently to let all people know. And men and women have equal rights in job and self-development, so they should be treated equally in government’s plan.
Secondly, women should have certain laws that will truly protect their rights and which run through every step of the employment: recruitment, employment, etc. And the employers should not set up gender obstacle, instead, pay more attention to the professional capabilities. What’s more, the company or cooperation should give both employers and employees enough time to have class and training. Because employers are responsible for unlawful acts of discrimination carried out by their employees in the course of their employment. The employees and employers also need to improve their consciousness of obeying the law and learn to protect their own rights. To sum up, all these efforts aim at forming a fair competition between men and women and a good structure of employment.
Thirdly, the government should give publicity to the related regulations and encourage the study accordingly. For example, to update and improve “Sex Discrimination Act” and “Equal Pay”, ensure the implementation of the laws and the supervision of local labor administration. Anyone who disobeys the laws should be corrected judicially on time.
Fourthly, women’s vocational quality needs to be improved. Facing market-oriented economy, women are not only confronted with new challenges, but also with new opportunities. Because vocational quality is the most important to employees in labor market, who is able to be solely responsible at work, and who brings to the company opportunity and profit, he or she is always welcome and highly regarded. It is fundamental to improve women’s vocational quality, in order to avoid gender discrimination in labor market.
Reference
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Riley & College, 2006, ‘Gender discrimination and compensating differentials in Sweden’, Applied Economics, Vol. 24 Issue 7, p751
M. Johansson, K. Katz and H. Nyman, 2005, ‘Wage differentials and gender discrimination–changes in Sweden 1981-1998’, Acta Sociologica, Vol. 48, No. 4, p341-364
Rosemary R. (1997) Sex Discrimination and Competition in Product and Labor markets ‘Applied Economics’ Vol. 27, Issue 9, p849-857
Val Caven (2006) Choice, diversity and ‘false consciousness’ in women’s careers in International Journal of Training and Development Vol. 10 Issue 1 p41-54
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G.S. Becker (1993) Human Capital: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis, USA: University of Chicago Press
Jill Rubery, 1998, Women and European Employment, Oxford University Press, 184
Cherrie Stubbs, 1998, A Women’s Work in the Changing Local Economy, Cambridge, 122
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